Instinct: A study in social psychology

Chapter 16: Some False Instincts Exposed — Analysis of Contents

Luther Lee Bernard

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The argument regarding the current misuse of the term instinct and its application in very large measure to the acquired complexes which have most symbolic significance in our modern life can be made clearer by means of an analysis of some of the so-called instincts of a highly complex and variable character into their constituent elements. In this analysis a systematic presentation of only those constituent elements which are claimed to be of a reflex or instinctive character will be attempted. The reason for this limitation is obvious enough. If the admittedly acquired elements of these activity complexes and value concepts were also included, however useful they might be for purposes of comparison, they would in all cases, embrace practically the whole range of human activities. For it is patent enough, at least upon reflection, that one may employ the various types of locomotion in fighting activities, or the different forms of submission or aggression, or of gregariousness or pugnacity, in achieving sex ends. The present writer, in presenting these analyses of the supposed inherited constituent elements of the complex and variable "instincts" does not thereby indicate his own acceptance of these analyses. In fact he is inclined to question most of them in greater or less detail.

The term instinct wasp of course, formerly used in a general sense to indicate the innate as over against the acquired elements in behavior. This usage appears to go back to the beginnings of philosophic writings among the Greeks, and it is

(366) much older than the use of the term instinct as applied to concrete activity processes, that is, the specific instincts. The equivalent of our modern general term instinct occurs in the writings of Plato, Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, and we find traces of it in the writings of the middle ages. In the eighteenth century the term— still used mainly in its more general sense— becomes much more common. Helvetius,[1] Hartley [2] and the Scotch metaphysicians [3] especially make use of it. Herder [4] devotes a chapter to its discussion. There is evidence of the popular use of the term instinct as early as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The word instinct occurs in Shakespeare's plays between seven and ten times. Hume [5] makes fairly frequent use of the concept as a general term for innate tendencies, but he scarcely ever employs it with any concrete or specific structural reference or content. It was not until the nineteenth century, when the study of psychological processes emerged from philosophic argumentation and introspection under the influence of biological experimentation, and when the study of neurology and physiology in general shook off the cloying superstitions of the metaphysics of the old mechanists,[6] on the one hand, and of vitalism, on the other,[7] (to say nothing of the older theological and metaphysical superstitions of an external personal fiat or a world principle or Natural Law [8] ruling the actions of man from with-

(367) -out) that thinkers and investigators began with any success to analyze and study the concrete activity processes. Then they began to describe the more detailed and specific correlations of the stimulus-response processes in terms of stimulus, response, metabolism, and the neural processes and complexes, instead of merely in such formal conceptual terms as ideas, memory, reason, etc., which were apprehended through introspection and could be measured subjectively only. The sciences of physiology and neurology and laboratory methods of investigation, added to the more general methods of observation and logical analysis, produced modern experimental psychology and biology, which has in turn given us a behavioristic analysis and interpretation of action.

The inevitable result of these refinements in the method of studying activity elements has been to advance the description of activity processes from general activity complexes and value concepts, mainly acquired, to the constituent elements of these complexes and concepts, both inherited and acquired. Just as more careful methods of analysis in physics and chemistry broke up the old unity concepts of matter, mass, force, motion, molecule, atom into their constituent elements and concepts, in an attempt to ascertain the underlying constituent processes and factors, so in the field of human and social behavior have the general valuations of activity and the general complex organizations of activity, so frequently referred to in preceding chapters, been broken up into their constituent elements by means of more refined methods of analysis. No one man is responsible for this line of analysis by which, for example, the general term or concept of instinct has come to have concrete meaning through differentiation and pluralization. The number of the workers in the field is legion. Among the earlier psychologists who followed this process of extended analysis may be mentioned W. Preyer (who studied the activ-

( 368) -ities of children), [9] G. H. Schneider [10] and William James,[11] but they have been followed by a great host of psychological writers who, in the last two or three decades, have attempted to classify the instincts.[12] The discovery that the general concept could be broken up into so many constituent elements, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the general ignorance regarding animal behavior in the concrete prevalent in his time, led James to declare that man had more instincts than the lower animals.[13] This mistaken view has of course been corrected by many writers on behavior, as the means of distinguishing between habit and instinct have been developed more fully.

However, James was in one sense on the right track. If man does not possess more instincts than the lower animals he at least possesses more than the earlier students of behavior ever dreamed of. James would perhaps himself be surprised, could he actually penetrate the limits of the "spirit" world and read the further analyses of this generation of behaviorists and see the extent to which they have multiplied the reflexes and instincts. And this multiplication occurred even at the time when many of the old so-called instincts were being eliminated. McDougall, with his twelve instincts, must really be regarded as a conservative, when compared with his contemporaries whose classifications with a more numerous content of instincts have been presented in a previous chapters.[14] His vogue is not due to the fact that he improved upon the analysis of instinct made by James and the followers of James in this country, but to the fact that he used the concept of instinct, with a highly systematic classification of instincts, emo-

( 369) -tions and sentiments, as the basis of a discussion of the building up of character or activity controls within the individual. The educationists, ethicists and sociologists were desperately in need of some raw materials in the nature of psychological processes out of which to construct a theory of training and character organization. They knew practically nothing as yet of the methods of environmental pressures, and when McDougall's theory, worked into a neat metaphysical system more or less after the manner of the school of the Scottish metaphysicians, was presented to them they embraced it enthusiastically. Many things have since aided them in unlearning their error. One of these factors has been the further analysis of the instinct concepts here to be presented. The men who have done most work in connection with this analysis and breaking up of the so-called complex instincts are Thorndike, [15] Alexander Shand, [16] R. M. Woodworth,[17] and Smith and Guthrie.[18] The analysis which follows is only partial. The purpose of the analysis is primarily to illustrate the method of procedure and its consequences for the current theory of instinct, rather than to attempt a complete list of constituent reflexes and instincts— a thing which, as earlier pointed out, cannot now be done.

First, we may consider the so-called instinctive components of the herd "instinct" or the "instinct" of gregariousness. Woodworth says that the following innate reactions are organized within the complex called the herd instinct: [19]

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Thorndike has a much longer list of instinctive components of the " instinct " of gregariousness. They are: [20]

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Responses by approving behavior, such as

Smiling
Encouraging shouts
Respectful staring		 to Relief from hunger
Rescue from fear
Gorgeous display
Instinctive acts of strength
" "" daring
Victory

Responses by scornful behavior, such as

Frowns
Hoots
Sneers		 to Observation of empty-handedness
Deformity
Physical meanness
Pusillanimity
Defect

Each specific act or attitude or group of acts and attitudes mentioned by Thorndike has been given a separate line in the classification here presented in order that its individuality may be preserved. Even at that it will be observed that in many cases the content of the act is by no means simple or unitary. For example the content of the act of hooting will vary according to the recognition content of the mind of the subject. This lack of unity and definiteness of the act is even more noticeable in connection with the supposed instinctive acts of attention-getting. Each of these may be performed in numerous ways and is so performed, the variation occurring as the perception of the attitude of the other person, whose attention is to be secured, varies. This general criticism may be made of practically every one of the so-called instinctive acts grouped under the general term of gregariousness. The question, therefore, arises as to whether they can be instinctive. If we answer in the affirmative, we must either assume that these supposed unit responses within the general term gregariousness are really composite groups, themselves including a number of specific reflexes which serve as specific

(372) responses to corresponding specific types of stimuli, or that each specific stimulus or stimulus type may acquire substitute responses (and each specific response presumably acquire substitute stimuli) and the whole act yet remain an instinct.[21] If we accept the latter explanation, obviously we are not using the term instinct in the sense of a strictly inherited action-pattern. If, however, we adopt the former hypothesis, we are forced to admit that we are not dealing with instincts and reflexes, but we are still having to do with class terms which lack the definite and unitary character of organization which is essential to a true instinct. Thorndike himself admits that these responses do not easily remain uncontaminated. He says, "As in the case of all original tendencies, such behavior is early complicated, and in the end much distorted, by training." [22] He adds, "But the resulting total cannot be explained by nurture alone."[23] With this final conclusion we may agree, without having occasion to admit that this fact constitutes the activity terms here enumerated the original tendencies for which he is seeking. To the writer it seems that they lie farther underneath still and that the final original or instinctive elements of action are much simpler, that they are in reality reflexes. And as yet we have scarcely begun to study and classify the reflexes.[24]

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Closely associated in our thinking with the herd or gregarious "instinct" are those instincts and reputed instincts connected with courtship and reproduction. Woodworth has a rather loosely organized courtship "instinct" in his general

(374) classification of instincts. It is supposed to include the instinctive elements of [25]

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Under the heading of courtship Jordan and Kellogg include [26]

It is not necessary to point out that here, as in the cases discussed in connection with the preceding analysis from

(376) Thorndike, we have complexes, consisting largely of learned organizations and syntheses, rather than simple unitary instinctive acts. Under the heading of sex behavior, which to be sure is a broader term, Thorndike includes the following supposedly native elements.[27]

Closely related to the courtship "instinct" and instinctive sex behavior as above outlined is the chain "instinct" of copulation analyzed by Smith and Guthrie.[28] According to these writers, who define the instinct as a variable chain of reflexes ending in a definite type of response or end act, all the constituent elements of the instinct are directed toward the consummation of the final act,[29] which in this case is copulation. Accordingly the two analyses of Woodworth and Thorndike last quoted should really be grouped under this supposed instinct, if we accept this definition of instinct. The constituent reflexes in the reputed instinct of copulation are presented for comparison:

 

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It will be observed that Woodworth's whole category of courtship is included by these authors as a single term under copulation. Jordan and Kellogg include under the heading of reproduction the following supposedly instinctive elements.[30]

Some of these reactions notoriously violate the demand for unitY and definiteness in the instinctive response. This is particularly true of the "mating calls" and "coyness of females" of Smith and Guthrie which are further subdivided by Thorndike, and of submission or dancing, which may occur in more ways than can conveniently be mentioned. It is also evident that many reflex and instinctive elements have been left out of these lists. For example, nothing has been said about tumescence and detumescence, or about the automatic discharge of semen and other sex fluids in both the male and the female under certain conditions of stimulation.

(378) Neither have they mentioned the vaginal and uterine contractions. Possibly also some of the clasping movements and other acts of adaptation in the process of copulation are reflex. It should also be pointed out that some of the display mechanisms and the "preliminary restlessness" listed under this general heading of courtship, copulation, or reproduction are not distinguishable, at least on the basis of the wording here used, from those display elements listed under the previous heading of gregariousness. This confusion of classifications is the phenomenon of which we spoke as interchangeableness in the preceding chapter. However, this interchangeableness would be permissible under the chain reflex theory of instinct of Smith and Guthrie. The essential question in this connection, therefore, is as to whether we can call an organization of activity processes, even if they are each and collectively inherited reflexes (a very generous assumption), which is formed by the environmental pressures an instinct. The constituent elements might be instinctive without the whole being an instinct, because it was not inherited as a unit. The question here raised is of the same general type as that which arose in Chapter VII in connection with the criticism of Rocking's theory of the central instincts or the central organization of instincts, which it was decided must have been brought about as the result of the action of acquired neural controls. The answer must, in both cases, be in the negative: such organizations of activity elements, based as they are directly or indirectly upon environmental controls, are not instincts or inherited psychophysical mechanisms.

If now we turn to the so-called maternal instinct we find that Thornlike again offers many more content units than Woodworth presents. Under the title of the parental or mothering instinct Woodworth lists [31]

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Feeding the young
Warming the young
Defending the young		 by the mother

Obviously these are highly complex groups of activities. Thorndike, under the title of motherly behavior, breaks these up into more elementary terms and adds others as follows: [32]

 

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The above responses are supposed to be characteristic of the mother. But the paternal instinct also has its inning in the form of the following original tendencies: [33]

The first two of the above responses would seem to be as characteristic of the man's attitude toward his dog as toward his child and for anything we know to the contrary from the data of social evolution, might just as well— or better, perhaps have arisen in association with his dog than in connection with his child. Or, were the instinctive attitudes toward the child transferred to the dog after it had been domesticated? What little we know about the most primitive peoples, especially if we can assume that the maternal family predominated in the early history of mankind, would seem to justify the conclusion that the male's association with his dog was closer than that with his child.

A great many original or instinctive constituent responses have been worked out for fighting and anger. Woodworth mentions only three subdivisions of the fighting "instinct." These are very broad and general descriptive complexes as follows: [34]

Thorndike classifies a number of secondary instincts under the general heading of fighting and then subdivides these into constituent instincts and reflexes as follows:[35]

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Anger is closely associated with fighting. Shand finds the following instinctive elements in anger. [36]

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  • Bristling
  • Etc.

Thorndike, drawing largely from Darwin, lists under the same heading of anger the following: [37]

 

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Very similar also are the "instincts" of self-assertion and mastery. Woodworth finds four original constituent elements in the "instinct" of self-assertion as follows: [38]

 

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Less in the nature of general classifications are the constituent elements of the "instinct" of mastering submitted by Thorndike, but still by no means in all cases are they the original or ultimate tendencies.[39]

Thorndike assures us that this conduct, classified under the "instinct" of mastery, "is much commoner in the male than in the female. In her the forward thrust of the head, the approach, displays of strength, nudging and shoving are also commonly replaced by facial expressions and other less gross movements." [40]

Of the same general character as mastery is the defeating antagonists "instinct" of Smith and Guthrie. Under it they list: [41]

 

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Two comments are appropriate at this point regarding the aggressive and self-assertive complexes listed in the pages immediately preceding. In the first place, although these classifications of elements are arranged under general headings which are spoken of as separate instincts, many of the constituent processes are apparently identical in different complexes. This is notably true as between fighting and anger, where perhaps one might reasonably expect it, but it is also true that these aggressive "instincts" have many elements in common with those of gregariousness, courtship and the mother's care of the child. A comparison of the lists, such as is made in the table at the end of this chapter, will show this to be the case. This fact would not seem so strange if it could be shown that these general complexes were organized in the inheritance, instead of under the dominance of environmental controls. But the unreliability of such an assumption has been shown in this and previous chapters. In the second place, it is quite clear that the elements of the so-called instincts listed here are, at least in many cases, themselves highly complex struc-

(386) -tural organizations or merely synthetic abstract terms used to describe and correlate many different activities having similar functions or contributing to a common or similar end. For example, the "retaliatory aggression" or the "responding to cries for aid" of the last list (to take a minimum of examples) may have as many structural forms of activity expression as there are situations. This confusion and incomplete analysis has been pointed out in other connections and will appear in connection with analytical lists of constituent reflex or instinctive elements later presented, but it cannot be too much emphasized, since it indicates so clearly that a classification of the instincts, as a basis for their constructive utilization in the theory and practice of social control, cannot be made until we cease to regard these complexes as intimates in analysis. Just as physics and chemistry could not advance to their present stages of development until their general metaphysical concepts were broken up into more refined and detailed concrete processes which could be observed or controlled experimentally, so we cannot achieve a true science of biology, or of psychology, or of sociology until we proceed to deal in a similar way in these fields with such general value and synthetic metaphysical concepts as instinct.

On the borderline between self-assertion or aggression and submission are the reactions of self-defense, which partake of both the other two. Consequently we may expect to find some elements of both these "instincts" included. Under the general heading of the instinct of self-defense Jordan and Kellogg mention: [42]

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It may seem peculiar— if we remember that an instinct is an inherited unit organization of structure basic to action— that we should have an instinct composed of the structural elements of two other instincts. But such would appear to be the case if we accept this as a bona fide instinct; and many writers do so consider it, as may be seen by consulting the list of so-called instincts in Chapter IX. There are also some fear "instincts" or reflexes included in this "instinct" of self-defense.

Presumably, the opposite of aggression or self-assertion is submission. Neither Woodworth nor Thorndike finds a large number of constituent elements for this reputed instinct. Woodworth lists only three: [43]

 

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Thorndike does better: [44]

The dissimilarity of these two classifications is striking. Nor can one reasonably doubt that, as usual, Thorndike has gotten closer to the original elements than has Woodworth. In comparing the responses of the two sexes, Thorndike says, "Women in general are thus by original nature submissive to men in general." [45] This may be true, in spite of the changed order of things which has been brought about by the economic independence of women, but Thorndike has scarcely proved it.

The fear impulses are much more numerous. Under the title of shrinking from injury Woodworth lists the following: [46]

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Very similar is the list of Shand, characterized as "instincts organized under the emotion of fear," but with some differences of detail, and less nearly complete: [47]

Still similar, but much more detailed and much nearer to the original elements, is the classification of original fear elements of Thorndike : [48]

 

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Thorndike might have mentioned also the muscular expulsion of excreta in extreme fear or terror, and sometimes the forward flexion of the body in such a way as to compress the visceral areas.

The so-called disgust instincts have many elements in common with the fear "instincts." Thorndike lists the following under this heading: [49]

Spitting out
Retching		 in response to bitter and oily things in the mouth
Jumping back
Shrinking
Shuddering		 from or at Slimy things
Wriggling things
Creeping thing- on one's flesh

(391) Shand's list is not so very different and it also bears a fairly close resemblance to the fear elements. It is given under the descriptive title of "instincts organized under the emotion of disgust," as follows: [50]

Under the heading "instincts of ejection" might also have been listed sneezing. The stimuli which apparently produce the operation of these particular instincts are bitter, sour, sickly-sweet, hot and cold objects in the mouth. The stimuli which initiate the withdrawal responses apparently are, among others, hot, cold, sticky, slimy and ill-smelling objects. Shand himself calls attention to the close similarity of fear and disgust responses.[51]

Related to the disgust reactions in function, and to some extent in structure, are the constituent reflexes and chains of reflexes in the so-called instinct of cleanliness analyzed by Smith and Guthrie, as follows: [52]

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The similarity of these elements to those of other so-called instincts may also be observed by comparison or by reference to the chart at the end of the chapter.

Somewhat similar to these elements just listed are those which Woodworth classifies as responses to heat and cold: [53]

The first two are responses to hot objects. The second two are responses to cold objects. The last two may be responses to either hot or cold objects. This classification obviously cuts across the one listed under the heading "disgust." The same may be said of the following list of responses from Thorndike: [54]

 

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Response to very sour
Response to very salt
Response to acrid
Response to bitter
Response to oily		 spitting and letting drool out of mouth
Somewhat closely correlated at points with the above are the contents of the hunger instinct, as stated by Woodworth: [55]

Two of the above elements are identical with elements in disgust and one with an "instinct" yet to be mentioned. Thorndike, as usual, finds a more numerous content for his food-getting instinct.[56]

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Jordan and Kellogg's list of feeding reflexes is relatively brief: [57]

The "instinct" of swallowing food of Smith and Guthrie is inclusive of an even wider range of constituent elements, due perhaps to the fact that the authors require unity only in the end response— swallowing— which alone gives definition to the "instinct." The list of component activities is as follows:[58]

 

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The surprising thing about this reputed instinct of swallowing food, is not the length of this list of the constituent elements but its brevity, when we remember that any supposed chain of reflexes which ends in swallowing food may compose such an instinct. Why did not the authors include most of

(396) the other reflexes also? Surely they might have been made in some way to aid in the procuring or preparation of food for swallowing.

Thorndike's classification of the elements of food-getting is very similar in many respects to his classification of the instinctive acquisitive responses, which are listed as follows: [59]

It is difficult to determine where, in our sequence of classifications, the "instinct" of securing shelter, analyzed by Smith and Guthrie,[59] belongs. Some of its elements suggest gregariousness. Others resemble fear elements, and others still the collecting and workmanship "instincts." The list is presented here largely for convenience:

 

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In this connection, perhaps, should also be included the list of the supposedly original elements of the climatic "instinct," as given by Jordan and Kellogg. The list follows: [61]

The walking "instinct" also has its native constituent elements, one of which— holding up the head— is also to be found in self-assertiveness. According to Woodworth, the contents of the walking "instinct" are: [62]

 

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Woodworth also has an "instinct" of manipulation which consists of the following original elements: [63]

Somewhat related also is his "instinct" of exploration or curiosity, which contains: [64]

Some of these terms are doubtless duplications. They are presented here without elimination because they are stated separately in the text.

Play is closely related to manipulation and exploration and curiosity, functionally considered at least. Undo the heading of the play instinct, Jordan and Kellogg include: [65]

  • Wrestling
    Mimic fights
 of Young dogs
Bear cubs
Seal pups
Young beasts generally

Thorndike has a classification of original satisfiers and another of original annoyers. Satisfaction and annoyance are, of course, not unit activities or concrete inherited unit organizations. Consequently they cannot be spoken of as instincts, although, like imitation, they may, in many cases, be dependent upon instinctive constituent processes. Such instinctive constituent elements of the annoyers are assigned as follows: [66]

Sight
Touch
Smell		 of excrement
entrails
putrid flesh
blood
pus

 

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A corresponding list of the original satisfiers may be stated as follows: [67]

It is to be expected, of course, that these original elements would cut across the other classifications of original or instinctive elements of supposedly specific instincts outlined above. Satisfaction and annoyance arise from the performance of any sort of activities under certain circumstances. They are as relative as the feeling tones which give them their character-

(401) -istic organization and direction. It will be noted, in reviewing these two classifications, that Thorndike not infrequently confuses the process with the stimulus to the process. For example, in his list of original satisfiers he speaks of sweet tastes and glittering objects as giving rise to satisfaction instinctively. This is a correct assumption. But he also speaks of elation and of resting when tired as original satisfiers. These, however, constitute the process of satisfaction itself; they are not stimuli to it.

By way of summary, attention may be called to the following facts. First, many of the supposedly instinctive and reflex or original elements listed as constituent elements of the more general "instincts" or activity and value complexes are not themselves unitary, concrete and definite inherited processes. They are also frequently class names of groups of activities, which may or may not be inherited, or of value concepts relating to types of activities, functionally, but not structurally, considered. This fact was illustrated from time to time in the body of the chapter and merely requires summary mention at this point. The implication is that the work of analyzing the instincts into their constituent elements is not yet finished. Apparently it is only just begun. Even the writers here cited and quoted attempt an analysis of only a few instincts. Yet, a relatively complete preliminary analysis, however much it must later be revised in the direction of a more detailed analysis, is necessary before we shall be ready to make accurate use of the concept and data of instinct in the processes of character building and social control.

Second, the mistaking of acquired action or value processes for inherited action patterns of a unitary character is very manifest from the material here presented. This observation applies not only to the more general or class terms here called instincts, and which manifestly are not instincts, but also to

( 402) the supposedly instinctive constituent elements themselves. As has already been shown, the definition of instinct in terms of the end activity or of the central control mechanism, both of which are supposed to organize and utilize chains or sets of reflexes, does not solve the problem or obviate the objection to the complexity and variability or even the abstractness of the content of the constituent processes. Inherited unit mechanisms do not act in such a way.

Third, the lack of agreement among the writers as to what are the instinctive elements of the more general "instincts" is sufficiently marked to call for further analysis and classification in the hope of arriving at some consensus of opinion. The diversity of opinion in this regard is strikingly illustrated by the detailed classifications listed above and will be made further apparent by the tabular analysis which follows. A lack of agreement so striking constitutes a clear demonstration of the chaotic state of the theory of instincts.

Fourth, the different writers vary greatly with respect to the degree of concreteness or generality involved in the constituent elements which they classify as instincts. This difference doubtless in part indicates a difference in the character of their conceptions regarding the nature of instinct. But it also illustrates the difference in the degree to w hick they have analyzed the activity processes which are classed as instinctive.

Fifth, it seems clear from the exhibit that those activity processes classified under the headings which denote vegetative or other concrete survival functions are much more likely to be truly unitary and definitely instinctive than are those classified under the more general headings indicating social functions or processes of values. This contrast can be observed by examining the contents of the so-called herd or parental instincts as compared with those of walking or food-getting. The reason for this difference in concreteness unquestionably

(403) is that the social functions, having to be apprehended more abstractly and indirectly than the other functions, have not yet been subjected to analysis by so concrete a technique. This fact follows the general principle of the greater generality and abstractness of social phenomena as contrasted with biological.

Finally, the overlapping or interchangeability of the elements of the various general "instincts" is also easily observable. In order that this fact may be rendered more graphic a tabular analysis of the recurrent or interchangeable terms in these classifications follows. Such interchangeability would not exist if the supposed general instincts were really inherited unit activity organizations. Logically such overlapping is possible for the content of acquired complexes, but biologically it is not possible for true instincts or inherited unit activity mechanisms. The tabular presentation follows:

INTERCHANGEABILITY OF CONSTITUENT OR OVERLAPPING ELEMENTS IN 
CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE  INSTINCTS 

Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 "Instincts" under which
these constituent elements
are classified

Description of constituent
elements under each
general "instinct"

Fighting — Copulation
— Courtship
— Defeating antagonists
— Fear
— Feeding
— Fighting
— Hunger
— Play
— Swallowing food		 Fighting among males
Struggle to death for possession of female
Fighting with wings
Fighting at bay for offspring
Fighting
Against attack, to protect the young
Hunting-fighting
Mimic fights of young does, bear cubs, seal pups, young beasts generally
Fighting and intimidating possible competitors

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OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "-Cont

Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Cry, crying, yelling, calling, howling — Anger
— Copulation
— Defeating antagonists
— Fear
— Feeding
— Gregariousness
— Play
— Swallowing food		 Yelling
Mating calls
Cries that summon aid
Crying for help, a screaming cry
Cry of triumph over a moderate sized object
Calling to get attention of inoffensive person
Crying, calling, howling of animals
Crying and whining of young, hunting cry of owls and lions
Approach — Acquisitive responses
— Anger
— Feeding
— Gregariousness
— Hunger or food-getting
— Mastering		 Approach
Instinct of approach
Cautious approach, advance
Attention-getting directed toward an inoffensive person by
    approaching him
Hunting-advance, cautious approach
Going up to an unprotesting individual
Restlessness — Copulation
— Defeating antagonists
— Gregariousness
— Securing shelter
— Sex behavior
— Swallowing food		 Preliminary restlessness
Restlessness when alone and seeking company of fellows, 
   resulting in herds and colonies
Restlessness when alone
Restlessness in the open
Restlessness Am spermatozoa have not been discharged for a certain period
Restlessness due to hunger

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OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Cont.

Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified

 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Biting — Anger
— Cleanliness
— Defeating antagonists
— Fighting
— Swallowing food		 Biting
Biting parasites
Biting, when held 
Instinct to escape restraint and to overcome moving
   obstacles by biting
Biting
pushing, shoving — Acquisitive responses
— Disgust
— Fighting
— Manipulation
— Mastering		 Pushing away an opponent 
Instinct of withdrawal of contact— pushing away
Instinct to escape restraint and to overcome moving
  obstacle by pushing with the hands, pushing with the body
Pushing objects
Shoving, nudging a person
Scratching — Anger
— Cleanliness
— Disgust
— Fear
— Fighting		 Scratching
Scratching dirt over filth
Instinct of withdrawal of contact— scratching
Shrinking from injury— scratching
Instinct to escape restraint by scratching
Striking, slapping, hitting, mauling — Acquisitiveness
— Anger
— Feeding
— Fighting
— Swallowing food		 Striking opponent
Striking objects, hitting with the hand, slapping
Mauling a moderate sized object
Instinct to escape restraint and to overcome moving 
  obstacles by hitting, slapping
Striking by fish, snakes

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OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Cont.

Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Cowering, crouching — Fear
— Hunger
— Shrinking from injury
— Swallowing food 		Crouching under something, behind something
Crouching in hunger
Cowering
Crouching
Display — Copulation
— Courtship
— Mastering
— Sex behavior

Showing off
Demonstrating one's prowess in opposition to rivals
Spreading fins, intensifying pigmented colors through
   muscular tension by fish
Making a display of activity
Aggressive display in male, consisting of caressing, pursuit
   and capture; coy display in the female by advances, 
   retreats, submission

Kicking — Anger
— Fighting
— Self-defense
— Walking		 Kicking
Instinct to escape restraint and to overcome moving
   obstacle by kicking
Kicking of horse
Kicking with alternate motion of the legs
Pulling — Acquisitive responses
— Anger
— Fighting
— Manipulation 		Pulling in struggle
Pulling objects
Instinct to overcome moving obstacle by pulling
Pulling objects
Satisfaction — Gregariousness Satisfaction in presence of a companion or a crowd; in
  admiring glances, smiles, pats, in admission to companionship

(407)

OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Conl.
Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Satisfaction — Mastering
— Motherly behavior
— Sex behavior		 Satisfaction at the appearance and continuance of
  submission of those one meets
Satisfaction in seeing, holding, suckling a baby by one 
  who has given birth to one
Satisfaction in bodily contacts, including coitus
Screaming — Acquisitiveness
— Anger
— Defeating antagonists
— Fear		 Screaming at an opponent
Screaming
Screaming
A screaming cry
Spitting — Anger
— Disgust
— Hunger
— Response to very sour
—  " " salt
—  " " acrid
—  " " bitter
—  " " oily		 Spitting
1. Spitting out in response to bitter and oily things in the mouth
2. Instinct of ejection-spitting
Spitting out bad-tasting food
Spitting
Sucking, suckling — Food-getting
— Hunger
— Response to sweet
— Swallowing food		 Suckling, seeking the breast
Sucking
Sucking
Suckling, qlicking by insects
Attack, aggression — Anger
— Defeating antagonists
— Fighting		 Instinct of attack
Attack with bill, retaliatory aggression
Counter-attack

(408)

OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Cont.
Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Coyness — Copulation
— Courtship
— Sex behavior		 Coyness of females
Coyness
Coy display in females—  advances, retreats, submission
Defense of young — Fear
— Fighting
— Parental		 Disinterested fear for offspring— fighting at bay for 1 offspring
Fighting to protect the young
1. Defending the young by the mother
2. Snatching the child fromperil by animals
Flight — Copulation
— Fear
— Shrinking from injury		 Nuptual flight of some insects
Flight
Flight
Grasping — Acquisitive responses
— Food getting
— Swallowing food		 Grasping
Grasping in hunting
Grasping
Hunting — Food-getting
— Hunger
— Swallowing food		 Pursuit of, pouncing upon, grasping a small (orlarger) escaping object
Crouching, stalking, springing, teasing
Hunting in packs
Manipulation — Acquisitive responses
— Exploration or curiosity
— Manipulation		 General manipulation
Examination of objects and exploration by the hands, mouth, etc.
Turning things about

(409)

OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Cont.
Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Migration — Climatic
— Copulation
— Swallowing food		 Migration of wild geese ranged in wedge-shaped flocks, flying far and high
  in air, calling loudly as they go; of bobolinks, straggling away one at a
  time, flying mostly at night
Migration
Migration
Nest-building,
 securing shelter		 — Climatic
— Reproduction
— Securing shelter		 Building nests by birds in spring
Nest-building
Cooperative nest-building by insects
Putting into mouth — Acquisitive responses
— Exploration-curiosity
— Food getting		 Putting in mouth
Examination of objects and exploration by means of the mouth
Putting into the mouth
Resistance — Defeating antagonists
— Self-assertion
— Self-defense		 Resisting forcible manipulation
Resisting domination by other persons
Stamping of sheep, kicking of horse, running in circle of hare, 
  skulking in circle of some foxes
Shrinking, wincing

 

 — Disgust
— Fear
— Responses to heat and cold		 1. Shrinking from or at slimy things, wriggling things, creeping things
    on one's flesh
2. Instinct of withdrawal from contact —  shrinking
Shrinking, wincing from injury
Shrinking

(410)

OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Cont.
Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Singing — Climatic
— Courtship
— Play		 Singing by birds in spring
Singing of male
Singing of birds
Smiling — Gregariousness
— Motherly behavior
— Paternal		 Smiling at relief from hunger, rescue from fear, 
  gorgeous display, acts of strength and daring, victory
When infant smiles 
Smiling approvingly at child's vigorous antics
Squirming, writhing — Defeating antagonists
— Fear
— Fighting		 Squirming when held
Squirming
Instinct to escape restraint by writhing
Staring, glaring — Anger
— Gregariousness
— Mastering		 Eyes glare
Respectful staring
Staring at a person, looking him in eye
Glare of triumph when successful
Strutting — Copulation
— Courtship
— Mastering		 Strutting
Strutting
Strut
Care of the young — Mothering
— Reproduction		 Feeding, warming, defending the young
Care of the young
Chewing — Hunger
— Swallowing food		 Chewing
Chewing
Courtship — Copulation
— Reproduction		 Courtship
Courtship
Decoration of the person — Courtship
— Herd or gregarious		 Decoration of the person
Attention-getting by
 1. Elaborate clothing
 2. Following the fashionsin clothes

(411)

OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Cont.
Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements 
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Domination — Anger
— Self-assertion		 Domination, to secure subjection of associates
Seeking to dominate other people
Erection of the hair — Anger
— Fear		 Hair bristles
Erection of the hair
Fear — Fear
— Self-defense		 Disinterested fear for offspring
Fear of hereditary enemies
Flushing of skin — Anger
— Responses to heat and cold		 Face reddens, face becomes purple
Flushing of the skin
Following — Gregariousness
— Swallowing food		 Following the rest as they move from place to place
Following while suckling
Frowning — Anger
— Gregariousness		 Frown on forehead
Frowns at empty-andedness, deformity, physical
  meanness, pusillanimity, defect
Hoarding, collecting — Feeding
— Securing shelter		 Hoarding, collecting 
Collecting building materials, such as mud, sticks, leaves, hair
Holding up the head — Mastering
— Walking		 Holding head up and a little forward
Holding up the head
Interest in behavior of others — Herd or gregarious
— Parental or mothering		 Interest in behavior of others, such as screeching, crying, jabbering

1. Responsiveness to instinc-

(412)

OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Cont.
Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
 -tive calls cries of smiles of comfort, looks and gestures of 
 infancy and childhood.

2 . Instinctive comforting acts to children cuddling when infant cries
smiling, fondling, cooing in response to similar behavior

looking when infant point at objects
watching child eat
smiling at child's antics

Licking — Cleanliness
— Swallowing food		 Licking the body
Licking
Mating — Climatic
— Reproduction		 Mating by birds in spring
Mating
Modifications in breathing and
  heart-beat		 — Anger
— Fear		 Respiration and heart-beat affected
Temporary cessation, acceleration and difficulty of 
   breathing, temporary cessation, acceleration and 
   increased intensity of heartbeat
Muscular activity — Anger
— Responses to heat and cold		 Muscles become stringer
General muscular activity
Overcoming opposition — Anger
— Self-assertion		 Overcoming opposition
Overcoming obstruction

(413)

OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Cont.
Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Paling of skin — Fear
— Responses to heat and cold		 Paleness
Paling of skin
Paralysis — Fear
— Fighting		 Remaining stock-still and paralyzed
Instinctive paralysis of terror
Reaching — Acquisitive responses
— Food getting		 Reaching
Reaching
Rejecting — Feeding
— Hunger		 Rejecting poisons, loco weeds
Rejecting the breast
Running — Fear
— Self-defense		 Running from exciting object, to cover, to a 
 familiar human animal
Running in circle of hare
Seeking the breast — Food getting
— Hunger		 Seeking the breast
Seeking the breast
Shaking — Anger
— Cleanliness		 Shaking objects
Shaking the wet paw by kittens
Shivering — Fear
— Responses to heat and cold		 Shivering
Shivering
Shuddering — Disgust
— Fear		 Shuddering from or at slimy things, wriggling things,
  creeping things on one's flesh
Shuddering
Snarling, growling — Anger
— Defeating antagonists		 Snarling
Snarling, growling in defense of food
Stamping — Anger
— Self-defense		 Stamping
Stamping of sheep

(414)

OVERLAPPING IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE " INSTINCTS "— Cont.
Reflexes or elements
which are variously
classified		 " Instincts " under which
these constituent elements
are classified		 Description of constituent
elements under each
general " instinct "
Stiffening — Anger
— Fighting		 Limbs rigid
Instinct to escape restraint by stiffening
Talking — Gregariousness
— Play		 Jabbering
Talking by parrots
Throwing, hurling objects — Anger
— Manipulation		 Hurling objects to the ground
Throwing objects
Touching — Acquisitive responses
— Food getting		 Touching
Touching
Trembling — Anger
— Fear		 Trembling
Trembling
Turning head — Disgust
— Fear		 Tendencies, partly acquired, of turning away the head
Turning the head
Withdrawal — Disgust
— Fear		 Consisting of shrinking, shaking, cleansing, pushing away, scratching
Withdrawal of attention

It should be noted that, in the table which precedes, the same reputed reflex element occurs in the most diverse instincts. For example, fighting is listed as a constituent element in nine separate "instincts" and five of these are not even obviously related. The element approach is a constituent of such definitely separate or even opposed "instincts" as acquisitiveness and gregariousness, anger and feeding. Since these supposed instincts, defined in terms of their end results or the objective of the activity, have been shown to vary in their process content according to the circumstances of the act,

(415) it is clear that they are not unit characters or instincts at all, but complexes assembled under the dominance of the environment. The interchangeability of their constituent elements tends to confirm this interpretation. The same generality and acquired nature may be predicated, in most instances at least, of the constituent elements also. In only a few cases are they true or separate and indivisible reflexes. In some instances they appear in both the column of the reflexes and in that of the instincts, a further evidence of the great confusion existing in this subject.

Notes

  1. L'Esprit and L'Homme.
  2. avid Hartley, Human. Nature and Observations on Man.
  3. articularly Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart.
  4. Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit.
  5. See, for example, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding.
  6. See Baron d'Holbach, Systeme de la Nature and La Morale Universelle.
  7. This "superstition" of vitalism can scarcely yet be said to have perished when one recalls, Hans Driesch's The Science and Philosophy of the Organism and Bergson's writings.
  8. The theory of a natural law pervading all space as harmony and acting as the principle of organization of both inorganic and organic matter, including also human and social relations, may be regarded as the logical successor of the older theological or personality explanation of happenings. This fact was indicated by Comte.
  9. Die Seele des Kindes; also, The Senses and the Will and The Development of the Intellect.
  10. Der Thierische Wille and Der Menschliche Wille.
  11. Principles of Psychology.
  12. For a partial list of these classifications see Chap. VIII.
  13. Op. cit., Chap. XXIV.
  14. Chap. VIII.
  15. The Original Nature of Man, especially chs. 6-10.
  16. The Foundations of Character.
  17. Psychology.
  18. General Psychology in Terms of Behavior.
  19. Op. cit., 147.
  20. Op. cit., 85-91.
  21. McDougall. op. cit., ch. 2.
  22. Op. cit., 90.
  23. Ibid.
  24. 24 H. C. Warren (Human Psychology, 101) makes a very incomplete attempt of this sort. His classification is as follows:
    Human Reflexes
    A. Purest— least subject to central modification in adult.
    "Papillary" or iris reflex
    Ear twitching (controlled in some individuals)
    Hand withdrawal (to heal and pain )
    Myenteric reflexes (operation of stomach and intestinal muscles in digestion)
    Snoring
    Shuddering
    Starting (to sudden noise, etc.)
    Trembling
    Shivering
    Rhythmic contractions (in epilepsy, paralysis agitans, etc.)
    B. Largely pure— subject to inhibition or reinforcement
    Winking
    Accommodation, ciliary reflex
    Eye-fixation and convergence
    Hiccoughing
    Sneezing
    Patellar reflex (knee jerk)
    Dizziness reflexes
    Yawning
    Vomiting
    Facial reflexes (to bitter taste, etc.)
    Salivation
    Tickle reflexes
    Hand twitching (to dermal pain)
    Plantor reflex (to stimulus on sole of foot)
    Great toe reflex
    Vasomotor reflexes (blushing, paling)
    Breathing changes (to specific stimuli and to onset of sleep)
    Sudorific reflexes
    Groaning
    Laughing
    Cramp movements
    Squirming
    C. Occasionally pure, more often centrally modified
    Coughing
    Swallowing and gulping
    Visceral discharge, etc.
    Functioning of sex organs
    Reflexes to odors
    Gasping
    Weeping
    Sobbing
    Smiling
    Wincing, etc.
    Scowling
    Stretching
    Convulsive contractions (to deep pressure and heat, to pricking and other dermal pains, and to visceral pain)
    D. Pure in infancy, centrally modified in adult
    Sucking Tugging (wrist reflexes)
    Biting and grinding Clasping (elbow reflexes)
    Spitting Reaching (shoulder reflexes)
    Hunger and thirst reflexes Kicking (knee reflexes)
    Lip and tongue reflexes Stepping (gluteal reflexes)
    Vocal reflexes Jumping (ankle reflexes)
    Turning the head 
    Sitting up
    Tossing 
    Bending forward
    Grasping (finger reflexes) 
    Rising
    E. Posture reflexes
    Holding head erect
    Sitting
    Standing
    Equilibration
    It may very well be doubted whether some of these are inherited, although all of them may come to have the automatic character which justifies us in speaking of them as reflexes, either inherited or acquired.
    Smith and Guthrie, (op. cit., 51-4), offer the following list of inherited reflexes, although they would probably not claim that it is a complete list.
    Birth cry
    Yawning
    Sneezing
    "Colic cry"
    Crying due to hunger pain fatiguecold plunge (inspiratory) 
    Vocalizations as follows (during first month): m, n, ng, h, w, r, y, ow, as in owl, ee as in feel, oo as in pool, a as in an, a as in father
    Enteric responses (first day)
    Swallowing
    Hiccoughing
    Regurgitation
    Spitting out
    Sucking
    Licking
    Defecation
    Binocular accommodation
    Fixation of a light
    Blinking in response to a threatening gesture
    Rotating head away from source of light
    Tears
    Smiling
    Raising head when face is buried in pillow
    Finger movements
    Grasping object touching the palm
    Throwing arms toward head when dropped
    " " " " " touching head
    Avoidance movements of the arms
    Kicking
    Leg movements when abdomen is stimulated on same side
    Stretching and arching in response to removal of clothing
    Grasping when dropped
    Holding breath when dropped
    Turning over after being placed face down
    Creeping backward
    Placing the hand in the mouth
    Rage responses (caused by holding arms or head) such as
      Stiffening the body
      Holding the breath
      Thrashing with the arms and legs
      Screaming
    These reflexes were observed very early in the postnatal life of the child; many of them on the first day and nearly all of them within the first few days or weeks. Therefore they are supposed to be truly inherited rather than acquired. 
    It may be of interest to the reader to compare these two lists of reflexes with each other and both of them with the lists of elements contained in the reputed instincts analyzed in this chapter.
  25. Op. cit., 147-8.
  26. Animal Life, 248-9.
  27. Op. cit., 98-9.
  28. General Psychology in Terms of Behavior, 65.
  29. Ibid., 60, 64.
  30. Op. cit., 249-250.
  31. Op. cit., 148
  32. Op. cit., 81- 4.
  33. Thorndike, op. cit., 82-3.
  34. Op. cit., 160.
  35. Op. cit., 68-75.
  36. Op. cit., 225-42.
  37. Op. cit., 76-80.
  38. Op. cit., 162-5.
  39. Op. cit., 92.
  40. Ibid.
  41. Op. cit., 66.
  42. Op. cit., 245-6.
  43. Op. cit., 167-8.
  44. Op. cit., 92.
  45. Ibid., 93.
  46. Op. cit., 142.
  47. Op. cit., 200-7.
  48. Op. cit., 58-9
  49. Op. cit., 54.
  50. Op. cit., 379ff.
  51. Ibid., 379
  52. Op. cit., 66.
  53. Op. cit., 142.
  54. Op. cit., 50.
  55. Op. cit., 140-1.
  56. Op. cit., 50-3.
  57. Op. cit., 244-5.
  58. Op. cit., 64-5.
  59. Op. cit., 51.
  60. Op. cit., 65.
  61. Op. cit., 248.
  62. Op. cit., 152-3.
  63. Ibid., 154.
  64. Ibid., 154-5.
  65. Op. cit., 247-8.
  66. Op. cit., 123, 130.
  67. Ibid.

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